First established in the 1870s, the residential school system lasted until 1996, when the last school closed its doors. It was set up as a government policy that aimed to “kill the Indian in the child”. From 1913 to 1932, Duncan Campbell Scott directed the program with the goal of assimilating Indigenous peoples. In his own words:
“I want to get rid of the Indian problem… Our object is to continue until there is not a single Indian in Canada that has not been absorbed into the body politic, and there is no Indian question, and no Indian Department” (Mackenzie, p.91).
In 2008, Prime Minister Stephen Harper gave his official apology for these traumatic policies. On June 1 that same year, former students – known as “survivors” due to the abusive conditions they endured – won a court settlement against the government. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC) was set up as an outcome of that settlement. The TRC conducted a formal inquiry on the history and ongoing effects of residential schools by collecting stories from survivors and others. In 2015 the Commission issued its final report in several volumes, (executive summary of TRC findings PDF) and made 94 Calls to Action in areas including Child Welfare, Education, Language and Culture, Health, Justice, Youth Programs, Museums and Archives, Media, Business and Sports. A central tenet of the recommendations was that federal, provincial, territorial, and municipal governments “fully adopt and implement the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) as the framework for reconciliation” (Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada: Calls to Action, 2015, No. 43). In November 2019, the B.C. provincial government passed the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act into law. The Act was developed in collaboration and consultation with Indigenous partners, and according to the provincial government, “aims to create a path forward that respects the human rights of Indigenous peoples while introducing better transparency and predictability in the work we do together” (BC Government, n.d).
Years before the TRC was established, the Aboriginal Healing Foundation provided research and funding support for community-based healing initiatives. This work also aimed to address the legacy of physical and sexual abuse endured by survivors, including inter-generational impacts. Established in 1998, the non-profit organization’s mandate and funding ended in September 2012 and on September 30, 2014, it ceased operations.
The history and ongoing effects of residential schools provide examples of Indigenous resurgence in the forms of activism, organization and resilience. They also illustrate the multi-generational impacts of colonial policies and practices. The important work of groups like the Aboriginal Healing Foundation and the Legacy of Hope Foundation can inspire community-based initiatives in other fields, including technology development in First Nations communities.