Early encounters: settlers and Indigenous peoples

Many differing accounts describe the years when settlers first arrived in Canada, and reflect the diversity of the First Nations who lived in those territories since time immemorial. Consider the Nisga’a people of the Nass Valley in B.C. Along with permanent villages of long-houses made of logs and roofed with planks, they moved around during the year, staying in temporary shelters to fish, hunt, and harvest shellfish and berries.

Their society involved a complex network of social, cultural, economic, and political relations. These relations existed inside their own communities and extended to others living in the region and beyond. For example, the Oolichan or candlefish was an important resource and source of wealth and food. It was traded along the so-called ‘Grease Trail’, with other First Peoples from the interior (for beaver, mink, rabbit and groundhog furs) and the coast (for the carved canoes of the Haida).

As Europeans arrived in Canada, these networks of relations extended to encounters with the newcomers. The settlers had come to North America looking for fur, gold, and land, and to convert the Indigenous peoples to Christianity. They had no reason to show any interest in the history, culture, or social organization of the peoples they met – and believed their culture and society was superior.

There is some evidence to suggest the Indigenous peoples felt the same way. For example, some scholars suggest they tricked newcomers with legends of cannibals. An Ojibway story describes these early encounters:

“Men of strange appearance have come across the water…their skins are white like snow, and on their faces long hair grows. These people have come across the great water in wonderfully carved canoes which have great white wings like those of a giant bird” (Ray, 1996, p.40).

Peace and Friendship treaties, Numbered treaties, Modern treaties and land claims

During these early encounters, settlers and Indigenous peoples sometimes established mutually beneficial arrangements. For example, in Atlantic Canada sustained contact between Mi’kmaq and Maliseet peoples and European settlers resulted in military and trading partnerships. However, over time the priorities of the Europeans shifted towards less equal activities in areas like settlement and resource extraction.

We will explore these changes through the changing nature of treaties negotiated between these groups. Talking about treaties in this way greatly simplifies an extremely diverse and complex history. I will compress our discussion to three types of treaties, negotiated at different times, in different locations, and for different reasons. They are:

1. Peace and Friendship treaties
2. Numbered treaties
3. Modern treaties and land claims